Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud left us a common legacy: they destroyed the illusion of an absolute and universal truth. They planted doubt, that is, the willingness to deeply investigate the hidden reasons behind every belief and action. These “masters of doubt” taught us that man is more complex and mysterious than he seems.
French philosopher Paul Ricoeur shed light on how humans attempt to understand the inner world and external reality. He identified two fundamental drives in philosophy: the “will to doubt” and the “will to listen,” which are the foundations of hermeneutics, or the art of interpretation. According to Ricoeur, the “will to doubt” represents the need to transcend the classical thought of Descartes, who based philosophy on the idea of a clear and undoubted reality: Cogito, ergo sum (“I think, therefore I am”).
But for 19th-century philosophers, this approach seemed simplistic. Ricoeur refers to this era as the “School of Doubt,” a period that rejected the absolute truths of society, science, and economics. He singles out three central figures who exposed the hidden forces that influence human action: Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Sigmund Freud. These thinkers revealed how beneath the surface of human consciousness lies a dark and complex world.
KARL MARX: ECONOMY AS A STRUGGLE FOR POWER
Marx forever changed the way we understand society and economics. He analyzed the emerging capitalist world, highlighting the conflict between two main classes: the bourgeoisie (those who own the means of production) and the proletariat (those who sell their labor power). For Marx, this conflict is at the heart of every capitalist society and explains social, political, and economic change. His theory of class struggle was not just an analysis; it became a call for revolution, inspiring movements that have shaped the history of the 20th century. Through this lens, Marx showed that hidden economic forces shape our reality, more than we can understand.
FRIEDRICH NITZE: THE WILL TO POWER
Nietzsche challenged the foundations of Western morality and philosophy by proposing a completely different approach: the “will to power.” He believed that this was the deepest force that drives man towards creation, transformation, and survival. Through his concept of the “Dionysian spirit,” Nietzsche invites us to embrace life with all its contradictions, moving beyond the constraints of traditional morality and social dogma. However, he also warned of the danger of this will being destroyed by rigid norms that diminish human originality.
SIGMUND FREUD: MYSTERIES OF THE UNCONSCIOUS
Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, revolutionized the way we understand the human mind. He discovered that our behaviors and thoughts are often driven by unconscious forces—conflicts, complexes, and desires that we don’t openly acknowledge. For Freud, the unconscious is not simply a dark space, but a source of creativity and tension. He demonstrated that this hidden world influences art, literature, and every form of human expression. His psychoanalysis not only transformed psychology, but became a tool for better understanding modern society.
TRIUMPH OF DOUBT
Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud left us a common legacy: they destroyed the illusion of an absolute and universal truth. They planted doubt, that is, the will to deeply investigate the hidden reasons behind every belief and action. These “masters of doubt” taught us that man is more complex and mysterious than he seems. Through them, the world is no longer a clear and linear space, but a rich mosaic of interpretations and challenges, where truth is always in dispute.
